Geography

Geography

"Investigating and analyzing the mutual political action of the governments of Iran and Türkiye with the Kurds in the contemporary era"

Document Type : Research Article

Authors
Ataollah Abdi 1
Fariba Hosseini 2
1 Associate Professor of Political Geography, Kharazmi University. Tehran.Iran.
2 M.A. Student of Political Geography, Faculty of Geographical Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran.
10.22034/jiga.2025.2047997.1362
Abstract
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Ethnicity and ethnic nationalism, particularly in their politicized forms, have long been central concerns for scholars in the humanities. One significant case is the issue of the Kurds. Although the Kurdish people have a deep-rooted and ancient heritage in the region, political discourse surrounding them is a relatively recent phenomenon. The origins of the Kurdish issue in Iran can be traced back to the rise of the Safavid dynasty. The Iranian shift toward Shi'ism, along with the Sunni orientation of the Kurds and their affinity for the Sunni Ottoman Empire, played a significant role in this divergence. This dynamic contributed to the detachment of a substantial portion of Kurdistan from Iran. A significant development followed the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the emergence of modern states such as Turkey, Iraq, and Syria, which led to the division of the Ottoman-controlled Kurdish regions among these countries. These developments led to diverse and contrasting experiences in the trajectory of Kurdish ethnonationalism. The central governments of each of these states adopted different approaches to dealing with Kurdish ethnic groups and Kurdish identity. Furthermore, the degree of alienation or cooperation of Kurdish populations with central governments significantly influenced the successes or setbacks of Kurdish movements. Following the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the signing of the Sykes-Picot Agreement, the Kurds, historically, geographically, and culturally a part of Iranian civilization or a continuation of it, were divided among Turkey, Iraq, and Syria. The governments of these three countries faced considerable challenges in managing such ethnic diversity, which eventually took on regional dimensions. The emergence of Turkish nationalist discourse in the early 1900s marked the beginning of a new era in Turkey, one rooted in an exclusive ethnic Turkish identity. During this period (1915–1930), Kurdish uprisings in Turkey largely maintained a tribal rather than an explicitly ethnic or identity-based character. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and European powers imposed the Treaty of Sèvres near Paris. This treaty granted the Kurds the right to autonomy and proposed the establishment of an Armenian state in the east. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk convinced the Kurds to join the independence wars against the occupying forces in return for promises of autonomy. However, following the War of Independence, the Treaty of Lausanne in 1922 formally delineated the modern borders of Turkey. One key clause in the Lausanne Treaty concerned minorities in Turkey. Turkish diplomats subtly redefined the term "minority" to refer only to religious minorities, thereby avoiding any obligations regarding ethnic minorities, particularly the Kurds, in the eyes of the international community. Despite this, Turkey did not honor even the provisions related to Christian minorities, and Kurdish rights, as an independent and marginalized ethnic group, were entirely ignored. Not only were their claims to autonomy dismissed, but even their ethnic identity and citizenship status were denied. In Atatürk’s new nation-building project, all citizens of Turkey were defined as being of Turkish race, lineage, and language. The Kurdish nationalist movement first emerged in the late 19th century with Sheikh Ubeydullah’s revolt against the Ottoman system in 1880, and the pan-Kurdish ideology subsequently gained traction in reaction to the disregard of the Treaty of Sèvres. In contrast, the nature of the historical, cultural, and political bonds between Kurds and Iran has been markedly different. Numerous commonalities exist: from shared myths like Kaveh the Blacksmith, Rostam and Sohrab, to the celebration of Nowruz, the Shi’a faith among Shi’a Kurds, a long history of coexistence, and even linguistic ties between Kurdish and Persian. The name 'Kurd' has long been associated with Iranian identity, and Kurdistan is traditionally seen as a region of Iran. . Thus, how a state treats its ethnic groups is of great significance. This article, therefore, focuses on examining the approaches of the Iranian and Turkish governments toward the Kurdish population.
 
Methodology
The present research is part of a series of applied studies and follows a descriptive-analytical and exploratory approach. This study aims to describe the current realities and explain the underlying reasons and dimensions of how and why the issue has evolved into its present form. Data collection was conducted through library research, including the review and extraction of information from books, scholarly articles, theses, and searches on reputable academic websites. The data analysis method employed is qualitative content analysis.
 
Results and Discussion
The findings of this study reveal significant differences in the approaches adopted by the Iranian and Turkish governments toward the Kurdish issue. While both states have encountered the challenges of ethnic diversity during their processes of modernization and nation-building, their political strategies have been fundamentally different.
 
Turkey has historically pursued an assimilationist policy aimed at suppressing Kurdish ethnic identity, perceiving any form of ethnic expression as a threat to national unity and territorial integrity. This securitized approach,manifested in the denial of Kurdish identity, the prohibition of the Kurdish language
in public domains, forced population relocations, and military suppression, has intensified ethnic alienation and led to sustained insurgency and instability in Kurdish regions. Furthermore, Turkey’s military incursions into Kurdish-populated areas in northern Iraq and Syria reflect a continuation of its hardline stance and contribute to regional tensions.
In contrast, Iran’s approach, although not without limitations, has emphasized a model of “unity in diversity.” Kurds in Iran have historically been considered an integral part of the broader Iranian identity, sharing deep cultural, linguistic, and religious ties with other Iranian groups. While Kurdish regions in Iran face economic underdevelopment and political underrepresentation, the state has generally avoided the outright denial of Kurdish identity. Instead, Iran has maintained a symbolic inclusivity, promoting shared national myths, values, and collective memory that include the Kurds.
This comparative analysis suggests that policies based on ethnic exclusion and repression, as seen in Turkey, are more likely to exacerbate ethnic conflict and fragmentation. On the other hand, inclusive and culturally integrative approaches, even if imperfect, such as those practiced by Iran, tend to mitigate ethnic tensions and foster a sense of national belonging. The role of regional geopolitics, particularly Iran’s engagement with the Iraqi Kurdistan Regional Government and Turkey’s militarized regional strategy, adds to the complexity of the Kurdish issue at both domestic and international dimensions.
 
Conclusion
This research concludes that the divergent strategies employed by Iran and Turkey in addressing their Kurdish populations have led to markedly different outcomes in social cohesion and national stability. Turkey’s policy of forced assimilation and securitization has not only failed to integrate the Kurds but has also deepened ethnic divisions and perpetuated cycles of resistance and repression. The reliance on military solutions and denial of ethnic identity has proven counterproductive to national unity.
On the other hand, Iran’s approach, although constrained by structural and political challenges, demonstrates the relative effectiveness of symbolic inclusion and cultural accommodation. Recognizing Kurdish cultural and historical contributions to Iranian identity has helped maintain a degree of ethnic integration, despite economic disparities and regional grievances.
Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of inclusive ethnic policies and the recognition of diversity as a national asset rather than a threat. Sustainable national unity, particularly in multiethnic societies, depends on equitable development, meaningful political participation, and the protection of cultural rights. Future policies in both countries would benefit from shifting away from ethnic marginalization and toward participatory governance and interethnic dialogue.
Keywords
Kurds
Iran
Türkiye

Subjects

Amid, H. (1986). Amid dictionary (Vol. 3). Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing.[persioan]
Amini, A. A. (1988). Elements constituting the state. Political and Economic Information, 23. Tehran: Ettelaat Institute. [persioan]
Amir Ahmadi, H. (1998). Ethnicity and security (H. Shafiei, Trans.). Strategic Studies Quarterly, 2. Faculty of Strategic Studies, Tehran. [persioan].
 
Adibi, M. (1998). The geopolitical position of Iran after the Cold War. In Geography Conference: Defense and Security Applications, Imam Hossein University, Tehran. [persioan]
Ahmadi, H. (1999). Ethnicity and ethnocentrism in Iran (3rd ed.). Tehran: Ney Publishing. [persioan]
Aliar Khademol-Alma Naser (2005). A small step in discovering Kurdish ideals. Iranian Humanities Portal, Iran Outlook (Kurdistan Special Issue), Autumn. [persioan]
Aref, H. (2008). The Kurds: A historical-political study (1st ed.). Tabriz: Ana Publishing. [persioan]
Abdi, A. (2010). Examination of ethnic policy in multi-ethnic countries and offering an optimal model: Case study of Iran (Azerbaijan and Kurdistan). PhD dissertation, Political Geography, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. [persioan]
Abbasi Semnani, A. (2013). The geopolitical position of Iran in regional and global power relations. Geographical Information Quarterly (Sepehr), 22(861), 96–104. [persioan].
https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.25883860.1392.22.861.17.6
Abdokhodaei, M. (2014). Modern state, civilizational state. Scientific Research Quarterly of Philosophy and Theology, 19(3), 97–122. [persioan]
Ahmadi, H. (2015). A study of political events in Iran’s Kurdish regions. Tehran: Institute for Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies. [persioan]
Abdi, A., Darabi, M., & Raisolsadat, S. M. T. (2017). Contemporary history of the Kurds in Iran from the perspective of social studies textbooks of Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Geography (Scientific-Research International Quarterly of Iranian Geographical Society), 15(53), 219–232. [persioan]
Abdi, A. (2018). Theoretical explanation of ethnic divergence in political geography. Geopolitics Quarterly, 13(4), 92–120. [persioan]
https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.17354331.1396.13.48.5.2
Alam, A., & Pourpashakasin, A. (2017). Concept of state in ancient Iranian political thought. Politics Quarterly, Faculty of Law and Political Science Journal, 47(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.22059/jpq.2017.60776
Bani Hashemi, M. Q. (2004). Global regimes and the transformation of ethnic movements' status. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 9(1), 89–108.
Beheshti, S. S., & Haqmoradi, M. (2017). Sense of belonging to Iran among Iranian ethnic groups. Applied Sociology, 28(3), 25–40.
https://doi.org/10.22108/jas.2017.21441
Coser, L. A., & Rosenberg, B. (1999). Fundamental sociological theories (F. Ershad, Trans.). Tehran: Ney Publishing.
Calhoun, C. (2016). Nations matter: Culture, history, and the cosmopolitan dream (M. R. Fadaei, Trans.). Tehran: Shirazeh Publishing.
Drysdale, A., & Blake, G. H. (1994). The political geography of the Middle East and North Africa (D. Mirheyder, Trans., 3rd ed.). Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publications.
Delacampagne, C. (2003). Philosophy of politics in the contemporary world (B. Naderzadeh, Trans.). Tehran: Hermes.
Delakampagne, C. (2003). Philosophy of politics in the contemporary world (B. Naderzadeh, Trans.). Tehran: Hermes.
Delacampagne Dastmali, M. A. (2016). Turkey and the Kurdish challenge. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 19(1), 171–176.
Dowlatabadi, A. B. (2019). Explaining the reasons for the change in the behavior of the Justice and Development Party towards the Kurds of Turkey based on James Rosenau’s connectivity theory. Politics and International Relations, 3(5), 33–63.
https://doi.org/10.22080/jpir.2019.16505.1083
Dahlman,Carl(2002).The political Ceography of Kurdistan:Eurasian Ceography and Economics,
http://dx.doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.43.4.271
Ezzati, E. (2001). Geopolitics in the 21st century. Tehran: SAMT Publications.
Entessar, N. (2002). Kurdish ethnonationalism (A. Abdollahzadeh, Trans., 1st ed.). Tehran: Ma’refat Publications.
Entessar, N. (2006). The power mafia: A study of Kurdish ethno-racial nationalism (E. Qanaeifard, Trans.). Tehran: Author. [persioan]
Esmaeilzadeh, K. (2006). Evaluation of the political participation of Kurds in Iran. Rojef Quarterly, 69. [persioan]
Ezzati, E., & Ahmadi Silveh, J. (2010). Spatial analysis of ethnic crises in the Middle East (Case study: Kurds of Iran). New Perspectives in Human Geography Journal, 2(Spring). [persioan]
Edrisian, G. (2016). The Kurds and Kurdistan. Sulaymaniyah: Saredem Publications.
 
Emadi, S., Simbar, R., & Jancis, A. (2021). Factors affecting the formation of Iran's foreign policy behavior towards the Kurdistan Regional Government of Iraq (2003-2019). Political and International Research Quarterly, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Unit, 4, 119–134.
Farooqi, O. (1983). History and culture of Kurdistan. Tehran: Shargh Publishing. [persioan]
Fuller, G. (1994). Center of the universe: The geopolitics of Iran (A. Fajr, Trans.). Tehran: Markaz Publishing.
Faulks, K. (2002). Citizenship (M. T. Delfrooz, Trans.). Tehran: Kavir Publishing. [persioan]
Farbod, N. (2005). Ethnic groups and solutions to Iran’s ethnic problems. Comprehensive Portal of Humanities, Iran Perspective (Special Kurdistan issue), Autumn 2005.
Farahmand, S., & Samiei, A. (2017). Explanation of Justice and Development Party’s approaches toward Kurds: From national reconciliation to repression (2002–2015). Political and International Research Quarterly, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Unit, 34, 91–118. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/pir/Article/1010521
Fazaeli, M., & Karami, M. (2017). “Ethnic minorities in Iran” or “Iranian ethnicities”? From a journalistic to a legal perspective. Legal Studies, 9(3), 219–284. https://doi.org/10.22099/jls.2017.20727.2009
Ghirshman, R. (1987). Iran: From the earliest times to the Islamic conquest (M. Moein, Trans.). Tehran: [Publisher not specified]. [persioan]
Gunter, M. M. (1997). The Kurdish factor in Middle Eastern politics (A. Karimi, Trans.). Tehran: Center for Strategic Middle East Studies.
Giddens, A. (1997). Sociology (M. Sabouri, Trans., 3rd ed.). Tehran: Ney Publishing. [persioan]
Gunter, M. M. (n.d.). The Kurds and the future of Turkey (translated by Erfan Ghaneifard). Ziribar Quarterly, 63, 167–216.
Gallestoun, R. (2000). The problem of geographical space and place (J. Tabrizi, Trans.). Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publications.
Golmohammadi, A. (2004). Identity discourses in the era of globalization. In Globalization and Identity (pp. 1–xx). Tehran: Institute for Humanities Research and Development. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.25886495.1398.3.1.7.8
Ghahremani Pour, R. (2004). Europe yearbook: Special issue on Iran–Europe relations (Vol. 2). Tehran: Abrar Moaser Publications.
Golmohammadi, A. (2015). Weberian conceptualization of the state. State Studies, 1(1).
https://doi.org/10.22054/tssq.2015.1511
Ghasemi, F. (2016). Kurdish developments (1st ed., pp. 11–26). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications.
Ghaderzadeh, O., & Mohammadzadeh, H. (2018). Survey study of ethnic identity and politicization of Kurdish ethnicity in Iran. Strategic Research on Security and Social Order, 7(1), 19–42.
 https://doi.org/10.22108/ssoss.2017.103431.1063
Qureshi Karrin, S. H., & Ghanbari, A. (2015). Relations of the Kurds with the Safavid and Ottoman states from Shah Ismail I to the end of Shah Abbas I’s reign (1038–907 AH). Research Journal of Local Histories of Iran, 3(2), 122–136.
Haggett, P. (1997). Geography: A contemporary synthesis (Vol. 1) (Shapour Goodarzi, Trans.). Tehran: SAMT Publications. [persioan]
Hafeznia, M. R. (2002). The political geography of Iran (1st ed.). Tehran: SAMT Publications. [persioan]
Houshmand, E. (2004). Kurd or Kurds: A sociological introduction to Kurdish studies. Goftegu Quarterly, 4.
Houshmand, E. (2005). A sociological view of the formation of the Kurdistan Democratic Party. Comprehensive Portal of Humanities, Iran Perspective (Special Kurdistan issue), Autumn 2005.
Hafeznia, M. R. (2006). Principles and concepts of geopolitics. Mashhad: Papli Publications. [persioan]
Hutchinson, J., & Smith, A. (2007). Nationalism (M. Younesi & A. Morshedizadeh, Trans.). Tehran: Strategic Studies Research Institute.
Hutchinson, J., & Smith, A. (2007). Nationalism. Tehran: Strategic Studies Research Institute.
Haqqpanah, J. (2008). The Kurds and the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Tehran: Abrar Moaser International Studies and Research Institute.
Houshmand, E. (2011). Kurds of Turkey: The remaining legacy. Goftegu Quarterly, Special Turkey Issue, 59, 43–55. [persioan]
 
 
Heydari, N. (2016). Kurdish developments (pp. 49–74). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications.
Heydari, Sh. (2016). Kurdish developments (pp. 141–171). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications.
Lambton, A. K. S. (2000). State and government in medieval Islam: The theory of government in Iran (Ch. Pahlavan, Trans.). Tehran: Giou Publishing.
Lak, M. (2005). The role of the Persian language in shaping identity in poetry. Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publishing.
Jalaipour, H. R. (1993). Kurdistan, the Kurds, and the causes of the continuation of its crisis after the Islamic Revolution (1979–1991). Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Javadi Arjmandi, M. J., Tavakolian, S. M., & Qomrian Nasr Abadi. (2014). The role of ethnic identity in sustainable security: Case study of Kurdistan region of Iran (Kurdish ethnicity). International Political Research Quarterly, 21, 147–182.
Jan, F. (2022). The heavy cost of being Kurdish in Turkey. KurdPress. https://www.kurdpress.com/news/
Jofar, M. R., & Mohammadi, H. (2023). Examination of geopolitical interests conflicts between Iran and Turkey in Central Asia and the Caucasus. Iranian Geographical Association Quarterly, 21(78), 93–107. [persioan]
Jahanshahi, A. (2024). Natural (physical) and human geopolitical factors influencing the formulation of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s defense strategy towards Turkey. Strategic Political Quarterly, 8(4), 131–148. [persioan]
Kurdistan Events. (1989). Security and Law Enforcement Journal, Ministry of Interior, Tehran. (Bina).
Kutschera, C. (1994). The Kurdish national movement (E. Younesi, Trans.). Tehran: Negah Publishing.
Kafash Jamshid, M. R. (1997). Analysis of centripetal and centrifugal forces in Azerbaijan. Master’s thesis, Imam Hossein University, Tehran.
Kendal, I. Sh., & Nazdar, M. (2000). The Kurds (E. Younesi, Trans., 3rd ed.). Tehran: Roozbehan Publishing.
Karimi, A. (2006). Multiculturalism and national cohesion: A critical reflection. National Studies Quarterly, 7(3). [persioan]
Kamran, H., Minaei, M., & Zarei, B. (2009). The geographical concept of nation and its status in Iran. Geography (Scientific-Research Journal of the Iranian Geographical Society), 7(22).
Kamran, H., Gholami, B., Yari, E., Hosseini Amini, S. H., & Khaledi, H. (2010). Applied research in geographic sciences (Vol. 13, No. 1). [persioan]
Kaviani Rad, M. (2010). Regionalism in Iran from a political geography perspective. Tehran: Strategic Studies Research Institute.
Kheiri, M., Yazdani, E., & Omidi, A. (2016). The Kurdish issue and Iran-Turkey relations (2002-2016). Political and International Approaches, 7(4), 80–109.
Kolaei, E., Hariri, R., & Asadikia, B. (2016). The Kurdish issue in Iran-Turkey relations. International Geopolitics Quarterly, 12(43), 1–27. [persioan]
Koç, E. (2021). Fluctuating relations between Iran and the Iraqi Kurdistan Regional Government since 1958. Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 27, 304–319.
Kermanshah Province Management and Planning Organization. (2018). Kermanshah Earthquake Assessment Report. Kermanshah: Organization for Management and Planning of Kermanshah Province.
Lambton, A. K. S. (2000). State and government in medieval Islam: The theory of government in Iran (Ch. Pahlavan, Trans.). Tehran: Giou Publishing.
Lak, M. (2005). The role of the Persian language in shaping identity in poetry. Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publishing.
Minorsky, V. (1999). The Kurds: History, language, and culture (M. R. Yousefinejad, Trans., 1st ed.). Tehran: Soheil Publishing. [persioan]
Muir, R. (2000). Political geography: A new introduction (D. Mirheyder, Trans., 1st ed.). Tehran: Geographical Organization of the Armed Forces.
Mojtahedzadeh, P. (2000). Geopolitical ideas and Iranian realities. Tehran: Ney Publishing. [persioan]
Mirheyder, D. (2001). Fundamentals of political geography (8th ed.). Tehran: SAMT Publications. [persioan]
Maqsoudi, M. (2001). Ethnic changes in Iran. Tehran: National Studies Institute. [persioan].
 
Maqsoudi, M. (2001). Ethnic changes in Iran: Causes and contexts. Tehran: National Studies Institute. [persioan]
Mirmohammadi, D. (2004). Essays on national identity in Iran. Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publishing.
Momeni, M. Q. (2005). Anthropology of the Kurds of Turkey in the book Asia. Tehran: Abrar Moaser International Research Institute. [persioan]
Mohammadi, H. R. (2007). Kurdistan and national strategy. Tehran: Entekhab Publishing.
McDowall, D. (2007). A modern history of the Kurds (E. Younesi, Trans., 3rd ed.). Tehran: Paniz Publishing. [persioan]
Mohammadi, A. (2011). A survey of the political history of the Kurds. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing. [persioan]
Mansouri, A., & Faridouni, A. (2012). The manifestation of national identity in school textbooks. Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publishing. [persioan]
Mehrabi, A., & Ghamparvar, A. (2011). Factors affecting Kurdish divergence and crisis in Turkey. Geopolitics Quarterly, 7(2), 183–213. [persioan]
Mohammadyan, A., & Tarabi, Q. (2015). Impact of post-Saddam developments on the status of Iraqi Kurds. Iranian Journal of International Politics, 3(2), 116–141. https://doi.org/10.22067/jipr.v3i2.48715
Moslemnejad, Z., & Ghasempour, M. (2018). Identity, growth, and comprehensive development of early childhood. National Conference on Identity of Iranian Islamic Children in Preschool, SID. https://sid.ir/paper/898749/fa
Mohammadyani, A., Zibakalam, S., Tavassoli Rakanabadi, M., & Saei, A. (2019). Ethnic gap and its impact on the formation of Kurdish political discourse in Iran during the Pahlavi era. Journal of Political Geography Studies, 4(13), 121–150.
https://doi.org/10.22067/pg.v4i1.84640
Nazari, A. A., & Khalil Tahmasbi, N. (2015). Nation and nationalism in Anthony D. Smith’s critical perspective: A historical sociological study of Iran. Policy Research Quarterly, 2(3), 9–40. https://doi.org/10.2783.4999/QJPR.2002.1103.031
Nikfar, J., Zamani Dadaneh, S., & Shafiei Seif Abadi, M. (2018). The impact of internal disputes among Kurdish parties on the failure of Iraqi Kurdistan independence. Journal of Political Studies of the. Islamic World, 8(4), 77–109. [persioan]
Olson, R. (1998). The Sheikh Said Piran uprising (Kurdistan – 1925) (E. Younesi, Trans.). Tehran: Negah Publications.
Ozkarimi, U. (2004). Theories of ethnicity (M. A. Ghasemi, Trans.). Tehran: National Studies Institute.
Olson, R. (2005). The Kurdish question in Iran–Turkey relations (E. Younesi, Trans., 2nd ed.). Tehran: Paniz Publications.
Olson, R. (2013). Kurdish nationalist movements in Turkey from 1980 to 2011: Repression, resistance, war, mother-tongue education, and relations with the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). Tehran: Paniz Publications. [persioan]
Harrison,K & Boyd, T (2018)-The Nation- July 2018- https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526137951.00006
License- CC BY-NC-ND 3.0- In book: Understanding political ideas and movements.
Posch, W. (2015). The Iranian Kurds under Islamist rule – a short overview. https://www.academia.edu
Rabiei, H. (2016). Kurdish developments (pp. 105–119). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications.
Rezaei, A. (2019). Investigating factors influencing separatist tendencies in Kurdish regions of Iran. Iranian Political Sociology Quarterly, 2(4), 327–352. [persioan]
Rupp, Peter (1980). “Anthropologie et Histoire de l’identiténationale”, in Identités Collectives et Change Ments Sociaux, Ouvrage Collectif, Editions Privat, Toulouse.
Riamei, L. (2015). The Kurdish Question: Identity, Representation and the Struggle for Self- Determination: Identity, Representation and the Struggle for Self- Determination. Delhi: KW Publishers Pvt Ltd.
Rudaw(2024)-Population of Turkey’s Kurdish southeast over 17 million
https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/turkey/08022024
Sobhani, Z., & Parvand, Sh. (1994). An introduction to the society and culture of Turkey. Tehran: International Cultural Studies and Research Center.
 
Seyedamami, K. (1998). National integration and the growth of ethnic identities. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 1.
Smith, A. D. (2004). Nationalism (M. Ansari, Trans.). Tehran: National Studies Institute. [persioan]
Salehi Amiri, S. R. (2009). Management of ethnic conflicts in Iran (p. 71). Tehran: Center for Strategic Research.
Seyfoddini, S. (2016). Kurdish developments (pp. 75–88). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications. [persioan].
Seyfoddini, S. (2016). Kurdish developments (pp. 75–88). Tehran: Iranian Civilization Publications. [persioan].
Tavakoli, K. (2000). Kurdistan and the 2nd of Khordad Movement. Tehran: Fekr-e No Publications. [persioan]
Terry, J. W. R. (2001). An introduction to cultural geography (S. Tolaei & M. Soleimani, Trans.). Tehran: Research Institute for Culture, Art and Communication.
Talisse, R. B. (2006). Rawls’s philosophy (Kh. Diehimi, Trans.). Tehran: Tarh-e No.
Torabi, Y., & Majidi, Y. (2014). Managing ethnic divisions in Kurdistan of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Strategic Policy Research Quarterly, 3(11), Winter.
Van Bruinessen, M. (1999). Agha, Shaikh, and state: The social and political structures of Kurdistan (E. Younesi, Trans., 1st ed.). Tehran: Paniz Publishing.
Vakili, Sh. (2011). Darius the lawgiver: The Achaemenid order and the emergence of Iranian identity. Tehran: Nouraftin Publishing. [persioan]
Walzer, M. (2004). On tolerance (S. Najafi, Trans.). Tehran: Shirazeh Publishing. [persioan]
Yasemi, R. (1984). The Kurds and their racial and historical continuity (2nd ed.). Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing.
Yarkın, G. (2022). Turkish racism against Kurds: Colonial violence, racist slurs and mob attacks. Transnational
 
Geography
Volume 23, Issue 85
Spring 2025
Pages 77-104